{"id":494,"date":"2020-02-13T17:00:02","date_gmt":"2020-02-13T17:00:02","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/www.themepush.com\/demo-mediumish2\/?p=494"},"modified":"2020-02-13T17:00:02","modified_gmt":"2020-02-13T17:00:02","slug":"the-parisii-a-sub-tribe-of-the-celtic-senones","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/bestlaptop.id\/blog\/the-parisii-a-sub-tribe-of-the-celtic-senones\/","title":{"rendered":"At the age of six, Henry became sole monarch of the empire"},"content":{"rendered":"\n

At the age of six, Henry became sole monarch of the empire.[34]<\/a><\/sup>[36]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Pope Victor\u00a0II convinced the German aristocrats to swear fealty to their young king and enthroned him in Aachen.[36]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Although Empress Agnes had been planning to enter a\u00a0nunnery<\/a>, she was appointed her son\u2019s\u00a0guardian<\/a>.[34]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0She was responsible for her son\u2019s education along with a royal\u00a0ministerialis<\/a><\/em>\u00a0(unfree\u00a0liegeman<\/a>), Cuno.[37]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0She secured the most powerful aristocrats\u2019 support through lavish grants.[38]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Agnes was reconciled with Godfrey the Bearded and made her late husband\u2019s other opponent,\u00a0Conrad<\/a>\u00a0of the\u00a0Ezzonid family<\/a>,\u00a0duke of Carinthia<\/a>.[39]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Agnes took full control of state administration as\u00a0regent<\/a>\u00a0after Pope Victor\u00a0II left Germany early in 1057,[40]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0but she paid little attention to Burgundy and Italy.[41]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Henry had inherited his father\u2019s Roman title of patrician, but the concept of \u201cliberty of the Church\u201d became dominant in Rome during his minority.[42]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Pope Victor\u2019s successor,\u00a0Stephen\u00a0IX<\/a>\u2014Godfrey the Bearded\u2019s brother\u2014was elected without royal intervention early in August.[43]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A group of Saxon aristocrats plotted against Henry, fearing he would continue his father\u2019s oppressive policies after reaching the age of majority. They convinced\u00a0Otto of Nordmark<\/a>, who had recently returned from exile, to mount a coup. Henry\u2019s two relatives,\u00a0Bruno\u00a0II<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Egbert\u00a0I of Brunswick<\/a>, attacked the conspirators. Bruno killed Otto but was mortally wounded in the skirmish.[44]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

In 1057, Agnes appointed a wealthy aristocrat, Rudolf of Rheinfelden, to be\u00a0Duke of Swabia<\/a>\u00a0and also charged him with the administration of Burgundy.[38]<\/a><\/sup>[45]<\/a><\/sup>[46]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Godfrey the Bearded took possession of\u00a0Spoleto<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Fermo<\/a>, probably through a royal grant.[47]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Rumours of Godfrey\u2019s determination to seize the imperial crown with Pope Stephen\u2019s help spread in Italy, but the Pope died unexpectedly on 29\u00a0March 1058.[48]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Roman aristocrats placed one of their number,\u00a0Giovanni, Cardinal Bishop of Velletri<\/a>, on the papal throne without consulting with Henry\u2019s representatives. Giovanni took the name Benedict\u00a0X, but\u00a0Peter Damian<\/a>, the\u00a0Cardinal-Bishop of Ostia<\/a>, refused to consecrate him, although the consecration of a new pope had been the Ostian bishops\u2019 traditional privilege. The cardinals assembled at Florence where Pope Stephen had died to discuss Pope Stephen\u2019s succession. They wanted to elect the local bishop\u00a0Gerard<\/a>\u00a0pope and sent an envoy to Germany to inform Henry about their plan.[49]<\/a><\/sup>[42]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Henry, \u201chaving deliberated with the princes\u201d, designated Gerard as the Pope in\u00a0Augsburg<\/a>\u00a0on 7\u00a0June.[43]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0King Andrew\u00a0I of Hungary also sent delegates to Germany in September 1058.[50]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Andrew wanted to secure his five-year-old son\u00a0Solomon<\/a>\u2018s succession, ignoring his brother\u2019s claim to succeed him.[50]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The Hungarian envoys and Henry\u2019s representatives concluded a treaty, and Henry\u2019s sister,\u00a0Judith<\/a>, was engaged to Solomon.[43]<\/a><\/sup>[50]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The reformist clerics elected Bishop Gerard pope in Florence in December 1058.[43]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0He took the name Nicholas\u00a0II.[43]<\/a><\/sup>[51]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Godfrey the Bearded accompanied him to Rome and forced Antipope Benedict to leave the city.[52]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0His advisor, the monk\u00a0Hildebrand<\/a>, was determined to strengthen the autonomy of the papacy.[53]<\/a><\/sup>[54]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The Pope held a\u00a0synod<\/a>\u00a0which issued a decree,\u00a0In nomine Domini<\/a><\/em>, establishing the\u00a0cardinals<\/a>\u2018 right to elect the popes as against\u00a0election by people and clergy<\/a>, which had been manipulated by Henry\u00a0III.[55]<\/a><\/sup>[56]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Referring to Henry\u00a0IV as \u201cpresently king and with the help of God emperor-to-be\u201d, the decree also confirmed the emperors\u2019 existing prerogatives over papal elections, but without specifying them.[57]<\/a><\/sup>[58]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0As early as 1057\u20131058, however, Cardinal\u00a0Humbert of Silva Candida<\/a>\u00a0questioned the monarchs\u2019 right to invest clerics with bishoprics and abbeys in his treatises against simony.[59]<\/a><\/sup>[60]<\/a><\/sup>[61]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Pope Nicholas invested two Norman rulers,\u00a0Robert Guiscard<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Richard\u00a0I of Capua<\/a>, with southern Italian duchies in 1059. In return, the Normans swore fealty to the Pope and promised to support him against his enemies, probably the Roman aristocrats. Although the duchies were imperial fiefs, Nicholas\u2019s action did not necessarily trespass on imperial rights, because the popes had acted as the emperors\u2019 representatives in southern Italy for a decade. However, the Pope\u2019s\u00a0treaty with the Normans<\/a>\u00a0forged their lasting alliance.[62]<\/a>[23]<\/a><\/sup><\/a><\/a>Henry jumps from Archbishop\u00a0Anno\u00a0II<\/a>\u00a0of Cologne\u2019s ship into the Rhine at Kaiserswerth in 1062 (engraving<\/a>\u00a0by\u00a0Bernhard Rode<\/a>, 1781).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Andrew\u00a0I of Hungary faced a rebellion from his brother, Duke B\u00e9la, in 1060.[63]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Agnes dispatched Bavarian, Saxon and Bohemian troops to Hungary to fight B\u00e9la and his Polish allies, but the three armies did not coordinate their movements.[63]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0B\u00e9la defeated his brother who died of his wounds.[50]<\/a><\/sup>[63]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Andrew\u2019s family fled to Germany, and B\u00e9la was crowned king on 6\u00a0December.[50]<\/a><\/sup>[63]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0After B\u00e9la\u2019s victory, the command of the German duchies along the Hungarian frontier had to be strengthened.[63]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Agnes ceded Bavaria to a wealthy Saxon lord, Otto of Nordheim, and replaced Duke Conrad of Carinthia with\u00a0Berthold of Z\u00e4hringen<\/a>\u00a0in early 1061.[64]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Relations between Pope Nicholas and the German prelates became tense for unknown reasons in 1061.[65]<\/a><\/sup>[66]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0When Nicholas died on 20\u00a0July 1061, the Roman aristocrats dispatched an embassy to Henry asking him to nominate a new pope.[67]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Hildebrand and other reformist clerics elected Anselm of Baggio, Bishop of Lucca, pope on 30\u00a0September without Henry\u2019s confirmation.[66]<\/a><\/sup>[68]<\/a><\/sup>[69]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Anselm took the name\u00a0Pope Alexander\u00a0II<\/a>.[51]<\/a><\/sup>[69]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Henry summoned the Italian bishops to a synod in\u00a0Basel<\/a>\u00a0to discuss the situation.[51]<\/a><\/sup>[70]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0He attended the synod, wearing the insignia of his office of patrician of the Romans.[70]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The synod elected\u00a0Cadalus, Bishop of Parma<\/a>,\u00a0antipope<\/a>\u00a0on 28\u00a0October.[70]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The election of two popes divided the German clergy. Some bishops supported Cadalus (now known as Honorius\u00a0II) and others accepted Alexander\u00a0II.[69]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Archbishop Adalbert of Hamburg was Honorius\u2019s most prominent supporter, while Archbishop\u00a0Anno\u00a0II of Cologne<\/a>\u00a0acknowledged Alexander as the lawful pope.[69]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Empress Agnes supported Honorius, for which her advisors were excommunicated by Alexander.[71]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Her blatant favouritism for Bishop\u00a0Henry\u00a0II of Augsburg<\/a>\u00a0and the complete failure of the Hungarian campaign had compromised her prestige; the schism raised more indignation.[72]<\/a><\/sup>[73]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Archbishop Anno, Egbert of Brunswick, Otto of Nordheim and other discontented aristocrats decided to deprive her of the regency.[74]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Archbishop Anno equipped a ship \u201cwith admirable workmanship\u201d and sailed down the\u00a0Rhine<\/a>\u00a0to an island near the royal palace at\u00a0Kaiserswerth<\/a>\u00a0in April 1062.[72]<\/a><\/sup>[75]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The ship fascinated Henry, so Anno could easily talk him into a visit on it.[72]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0As soon as Henry stepped on board, the ship was cast off.[72]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Fearing his captors wanted to murder him, Henry jumped into the river.[72]<\/a><\/sup>[73]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0He almost drowned, but Egbert of Brunswick rescued him.[72]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The \u201cCoup of Kaiserswerth<\/a>\u201d destroyed the Empress\u2019s self-confidence, and she retired to her estates.[75]<\/a><\/sup>[76]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Anno replaced her as the head of the government.[75]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0His new title of\u00a0magister<\/em>\u00a0(master) shows that he also took charge of Henry\u2019s education.[77]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Anno was determined to put an end to the schism.[37]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In October 1062, the synod of the German bishops appointed his nephew,\u00a0Burchard\u00a0II, Bishop of Halberstadt<\/a>, to begin negotiations with Pope Alexander\u00a0II.[78]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0That same month, the theologian Peter Damian completed a\u00a0treatise<\/a>\u00a0defending the legality of Alexander\u00a0II\u2019s election.[58]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0He emphasised that Henry\u2019s \u201cright to participate in the papal elections \u2026 is subject each time to reconfirmation by the pope\u201d.[58]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Damian\u2019s argument implied that Henry only inherited a claim to the imperial prerogatives relating to papal elections, but he could forfeit it.[58]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Respect for the monarch also declined in Germany.[79]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0For example, the retainers of Abbot\u00a0Widerad of Fulda<\/a>\u00a0and Bishop\u00a0Hezilo of Hildesheim<\/a>\u00a0ignored Henry\u2019s commands when an\u00a0armed conflict broke out between them<\/a>\u00a0in his presence at a church in Goslar in June 1063.[79]<\/a><\/sup>[80]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

B\u00e9la\u00a0I of Hungary wanted to make peace with Henry to secure his throne against his nephew, Solomon, who had taken refuge in Germany.[81]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Henry and his advisors, however, insisted on Solomon\u2019s restoration to the Hungarian throne and German troops invaded Hungary in August 1063.[81]<\/a><\/sup>[82]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Henry gained his first military experience during this campaign.[81]<\/a><\/sup>[82]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0B\u00e9la died in an accident unexpectedly and the German army entered\u00a0Sz\u00e9kesfeh\u00e9rv\u00e1r<\/a>.[82]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Henry installed Solomon on the throne and attended his wedding to Judith before returning to Germany.[81]<\/a><\/sup>[83]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Adalbert of Bremen accompanied Henry on the Hungarian campaign and struck up a friendship with him.[81]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Adalbert was mentioned as Henry\u2019s \u201cprotector\u201d in royal diplomas from 1063, indicating a position equal to Anno\u2019s.[81]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Anno went to Italy to recognise Alexander\u00a0II as pope at a synod in\u00a0Mantua<\/a>\u00a0in May 1064, and in his absence Adalbert was able to strengthen his influence with Henry.[38]<\/a><\/sup>[84]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

First years of majority<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

<\/a><\/a>Map of the Holy Roman Empire in the 10th and 11th centuries: Germany\u00a0(blue)<\/em>, Italy\u00a0(grey)<\/em>, Burgundy\u00a0(orange to the West)<\/em>, Bohemia\u00a0(orange to the East)<\/em>, Papal States\u00a0(purple)<\/em>.\u00a0Sardinia<\/a>\u2018s presentation as part of the Holy Roman Empire is debated.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Henry was girded with a sword as a token of his coming of age in\u00a0Worms<\/a>\u00a0on 29\u00a0March 1065.[85]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0According to the contemporaneous account of\u00a0Lampert of Hersfeld<\/a>, Henry attacked Archbishop Anno of Cologne soon after the ceremony and only his mother could calm him down.[86]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Lampert\u2019s report is not fully reliable, but it is known that Anno was ousted from Henry\u2019s court.[87]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0At Worms, Henry accepted Pope Alexander\u00a0II\u2019s invitation to Rome.[88]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Agnes of Poitou recovered her influence, but she left Germany for Italy two months later and Archbishop Adalbert of Bremen took full control of state administration.[89]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Henry\u2019s journey to Rome was postponed first until autumn, and then indefinitely, although the Pope needed Henry\u2019s presence to overcome the Italian supporters of Antipope Honorius\u00a0II.[38]<\/a><\/sup>[90]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Instead of travelling to Rome, Henry visited Burgundy in June 1065. Burgundian diplomas show the local aristocrats regarded his visit as the starting date of his reign. From Burgundy, Henry went to Lorraine where he granted Lower Lorraine to Godfrey the Bearded in October.[91]<\/a><\/sup>[92]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Adalbert of Bremen, in concert with the King\u2019s young friend, Werner, abused royal prerogative to seize church property and took bribes for royal appointments. They persuaded the King to grant monasteries to the most powerful prelates and princes to appease their envy at their aggrandizement.[93]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Adalbert\u2019s attempts to take possession of\u00a0Lorsch Abbey<\/a>\u00a0by force caused his fall, because the scandal enabled Archbishops\u00a0Siegfried of Mainz<\/a>\u00a0and Anno of Cologne to stage a plot.[94]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0They secured the support of Otto of Nordheim, Rudolf of Rheinfelden and Berthold of Z\u00e4hringen and convinced Henry to dismiss Adalbert on 13\u00a0January 1066.[38]<\/a><\/sup>[95]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Anno regained the King\u2019s favour, but thereafter no royal advisors could take full control of state administration.[96]<\/a><\/sup>[97]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Henry fell unexpectedly ill in the middle of May 1066. His sickness was so serious that he was thought to be dying. The aristocrats began to seek his successor, but he recovered in two weeks. He immediately married his betrothed, Bertha, most probably because the uncertainty about the childless monarch\u2019s succession caused widespread anxiety in his realms.[98]<\/a><\/sup>[99]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Late in 1066, Prince Richard\u00a0I of Capua rose up against Pope Alexander\u00a0II and invaded\u00a0Roman Campagna<\/a>.[100]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Early in 1067, Agnes of Poitou hurried back from Rome to Germany to persuade her son to intervene on the Pope\u2019s behalf. Henry ordered his troops to assemble at Augsburg, but Godfrey the Bearded was faster and launched a successful counter-offensive against Richard in June. Godfrey\u2019s independent act was regarded as an insult to Henry\u2019s authority in Italy.[51]<\/a><\/sup>[101]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Adalbert of Bremen\u2019s fall had encouraged the\u00a0Lutici<\/a>\u00a0(a pagan Slavic tribe dwelling over the river\u00a0Elbe<\/a>) to invade Germany and plunder\u00a0Hamburg<\/a>. In early 1069, Henry crossed the Elbe to punish the invaders. He defeated them, but could not prevent them from launching subsequent plundering raids against Saxony.[102]<\/a><\/sup>[103]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Saxon Rebellion and Investiture Controversy<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

Further information:\u00a0Saxon Rebellion<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Investiture Controversy<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Large parcels of the royal\u00a0demesne<\/a>\u00a0were distributed during Henry\u2019s minority, and he decided to recover them around 1069.[104]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The bulk of the royal estates had been in Saxony.[104]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Henry sent\u00a0Swabian<\/a>\u00a0ministeriales<\/em>\u00a0to the duchy to investigate property rights. The appointment of non-native unfree officials offended the Saxons, especially because the new officials ignored their traditional\u00a0civil procedures<\/a>.[104]<\/a><\/sup>[105]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0New castles were built in Saxony and Henry manned them with Swabian soldiers.[104]<\/a><\/sup>[106]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Like his father, Henry spent more time in Saxony than in other parts of Germany and the accommodation of his retinue was the Saxons\u2019 irksome duty.[107]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The Thuringians were also outraged that Henry supported Archbishop Siegfried of Mainz\u2019s claim to collect tithes from them, although most Thuringians had been exempted from the church tax for centuries.[108]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The\u00a0Margrave of Lower Lusatia<\/a>,\u00a0Dedi\u00a0I<\/a>, was the first Saxon lord to rebel.[108]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0He claimed\u00a0benefices<\/a>\u00a0that\u00a0his wife<\/a>\u2018s former husband,\u00a0Otto\u00a0I, Margrave of Meissen<\/a>, had held, but Henry refused him in 1069.[108]<\/a><\/sup>[109]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Dedi approached the Thuringians for help, but after Henry\u2019s promise to confirm their exemption from tithes the Thuringians joined the royal army. Henry invaded Dedi\u2019s domains and forced him to surrender.[108]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Otto of Nordheim held vast estates in Saxony.[104]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0After a nobleman, Egeno, accused him of plotting against Henry\u2019s life, Otto was summoned to \u201cpurge himself of that charge in single combat\u201d early in August 1070. The contemporary historian\u00a0Bruno the Saxon<\/a>\u00a0stated that Henry had paid Egeno to accuse Otto, but his account is biased.[110]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Fearing his case would not be judged fairly, Otto disobeyed the summons and fled from Bavaria to Saxony.[104]<\/a><\/sup>[111]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0He was soon outlawed and his benefices were confiscated.[110]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Henry invaded Otto\u2019s Saxon domains, but Otto raided the royal estates in Thuringia.[110]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Ordulf, Duke of Saxony<\/a>, and most Saxon aristocrats remained loyal to Henry, but Ordulf\u2019s son and heir,\u00a0Magnus<\/a>, joined Otto\u2019s revolt.[112]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Henry ceded Bavaria to Otto\u2019s wealthy son-in-law, Welf, at Christmas 1070.[109]<\/a><\/sup>[113]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Without their peers\u2019 support, Otto and Magnus had to surrender. Henry placed them in the German dukes\u2019 and bishops\u2019 custody on 12\u00a0June 1071.[114]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Archbishop Adalbert of Bremen convinced Henry to release Otto of Nordheim in May 1072, but Magnus of Saxony remained imprisoned.[104]<\/a><\/sup>[115]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Before long, Adalbert died and Henry seized his treasury\u2014an early example of the application of the\u00a0jus spolii<\/a><\/em>\u00a0by a German monarch.[116]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Henry started appointing low-ranking men to royal offices in the whole kingdom and this practice outraged the German aristocrats. Rudolf of Rheinfelden and Berthold of Z\u00e4hringen returned to their duchies from the royal court and rumours accusing them of plotting against the King spread in Germany.[117]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Rudolf appealed to Agnes of Poitou, asking her to reconcile him with her son.[118]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Agnes, who had moved to Rome in 1065, returned to Germany and mediated a reconciliation in July 1072. It proved temporary because Henry did not dismiss his advisors.[119]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Agnes shared the dukes\u2019 negative views of Henry\u2019s advisors and persuaded Pope Alexander to excommunicate at least five of them in February 1073,[120]<\/a><\/sup>[121]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0though Henry did not sever ties with them.[122]<\/a><\/sup><\/a><\/a>Henry\u2019s brother-in-law, King Solomon of Hungary, appeals to Henry for help (miniature<\/a>\u00a0in the 14th-century\u00a0Vienna Illuminated Chronicle<\/a><\/em>).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Appointments to the highest church offices remained crucial elements of Henry\u2019s authority: the practice enabled him to demand benefices for his supporters from the wealthy bishops and abbots, but the reformist clergy condemned it as simony.[123]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0When Henry appointed a Milanese nobleman,\u00a0Gotofredo<\/a>, to the\u00a0Archbishopric of Milan<\/a>\u00a0in 1070, Pope Alexander\u00a0II excommunicated the new archbishop. Henry obtained Gotofredo\u2019s consecration, however, which brought him into a prolonged conflict with the Holy See.[124]<\/a><\/sup>[125]<\/a><\/sup>[126]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The\u00a0Bishopric of Constance<\/a>\u00a0became another source of conflict in 1070 after the local clerics appealed to the Holy See to prevent the installation of Henry\u2019s candidate, Charles of Magdeburg, to the episcopal see.[127]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Henry denied Charles had bribed him, but he publicly admitted at a synod that his advisors may have received money from Charles.[127]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Pope Alexander\u00a0II decided to investigate and summoned all German bishops who had been accused of simony or corruption to Rome, but he died in two months.[123]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The Romans proclaimed Hildebrand as his successor on 22\u00a0April 1073.[120]<\/a><\/sup>[121]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Hildebrand, who assumed the name Gregory\u00a0VII, did not seek confirmation from Henry.[125]<\/a><\/sup>[120]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0He did not challenge Henry\u2019s prerogatives, but he was convinced a monarch who had regular contacts with excommunicated people could not intervene in church affairs.[120]<\/a><\/sup>[122]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0He regarded lay investiture as the principal barrier to completing the reform of the Church and challenged royal appointments, taking advantage of individual complaints against German prelates.[128]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Henry\u2019s Italian chancellor,\u00a0Bishop Gregory of Vercelli<\/a>, and an assembly of the German bishops, urged the King to declare Gregory\u2019s election invalid, because he had been proclaimed pope by the Romans instead of being elected by the cardinals. The German dukes and Godfrey the Bearded\u2019s influential widow, Beatrice of Tuscany, convinced Henry that he should cooperate with the Pope.[129]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Boles\u0142aw\u00a0II<\/a>,\u00a0Duke of Poland<\/a>, invaded Bohemia in early 1073, and Henry decided to launch a punitive action against him.[115]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0He ordered the Saxon aristocrats to assemble at Goslar, where on 29\u00a0June they asked Henry to redress their grievances. Henry made no concessions and withdrew from Goslar to\u00a0Harzburg<\/a>.[130]<\/a><\/sup>[18]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Otto of Nordheim soon convinced the assembled Saxons to take up arms for their liberties.[105]<\/a><\/sup>[131]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The Saxons marched to Harzburg, but Henry had fled to Eschwege.[131]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The Thuringians and the Saxons concluded an alliance and captured\u00a0L\u00fcneburg<\/a>.[132]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0To save the life of the commander of L\u00fcneburg, Henry released Magnus of Saxony, whom the rebels acknowledged as their lawful duke without seeking royal confirmation.[133]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The German dukes and bishops did not come to Henry\u2019s rescue, and the rebels began attacking the royal castles.[134]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0To prevent the rebellious Saxon bishops from securing the Pope\u2019s support, Henry addressed a letter of penance to the Pope, admitting he had been involved in simony.[135]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0He claimed his youthful arrogance had been responsible for his sins and blamed his advisors for his acts.[136]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Siegfried of Mainz, Anno of Cologne, Rudolf of Rheinfelden, Berthold of Z\u00e4hringen and other German aristocrats came to\u00a0Gerstungen<\/a>\u00a0to begin negotiations with the Saxon leaders in October 1073.[134]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0They tried to persuade Henry to redress the Saxons\u2019 grievances, but he was determined to crush the revolt.[134]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0A month later, Henry\u2019s servant Regenger informed Rudolf and Berthold that Henry was planning to murder them.[137]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Regenger was ready to prove his words in a judicial duel, but he died unexpectedly in January 1074. His statements, however, deepened the conflict between the King and the two dukes.[137]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Henry, who had just recovered from an illness, moved to Worms.[137]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The local bishop,\u00a0Adalbert<\/a>, denied his entry, but the townspeople rose up against the bishop and surrendered Worms to Henry.[137]<\/a><\/sup>[138]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0A grateful Henry exempted the burghers from customs duties, emphasising their loyalty in a time when \u201call the princes of the realm were raging\u201d against him.[139]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Liemar<\/a>, Archbishop of Bremen,\u00a0Udo<\/a>, Archbishop of Trier, and eight bishops came to visit Henry in Worms in early 1074.[137]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Their retainers and the Worms militia joined Henry in a new military campaign against the Saxons and Thuringians, but he soon realised the rebels outnumbered his army and entered into negotiations with them.[140]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Henry accepted the rebels\u2019 principal demands in the\u00a0Treaty of Gerstungen<\/a>\u00a0on 2\u00a0February.[140]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0He agreed to destroy his castles and appoint only natives to offices in Saxony in return for the Saxon aristocrats\u2019 promise to raze their newly built fortresses.[141]<\/a><\/sup>[142]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0On hearing the agreement, the Saxon peasants captured and destroyed Harzburg and\u00a0desecrated<\/a>\u00a0the graves of Henry\u2019s younger brother and first-born son.[141]<\/a><\/sup>[143]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The destruction of the royal graves aroused public indignation, and Henry regarded it as a violation of the treaty.[109]<\/a><\/sup>[144]<\/a><\/sup><\/a><\/a>Ruins of Homburg Castle. Henry\u2019s army inflicted a decisive defeat on the Saxons near the castle in 1074.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Pope Gregory appointed the cardinal bishops\u00a0Gerald of Ostia<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Hubert of Palestrina<\/a>\u00a0to begin negotiations with Henry.[145]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Agnes of Poitou accompanied the two legates to her son\u2019s court.[145]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0After Henry had done a public penance for simony, the legates absolved him on 27\u00a0April 1074.[146]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0They summoned the German bishops to a synod to hear the case of Bishop\u00a0Herman\u00a0I of Bamberg<\/a>\u00a0who had been accused of simony, but eight prelates did not obey their summons. In response, the Pope suspended Archbishop Liemar from office, and summoned the disobedient bishops to Rome.[146]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Henry did not intervene in the conflict, although the German prelates under investigation were his staunch supporters.[136]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Henry\u2019s brother-in-law, Solomon of Hungary, sent envoys to Henry seeking his assistance against his cousin\u00a0G\u00e9za<\/a>\u00a0(who was B\u00e9la\u00a0I\u2019s eldest son).[147]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0G\u00e9za had defeated Solomon on 14\u00a0March 1074, forcing him to take refuge in the fortresses of Moson and Pressburg (now\u00a0Mosonmagyar\u00f3v\u00e1r<\/a>\u00a0in Hungary and\u00a0Bratislava<\/a>\u00a0in Slovakia, respectively).[148]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Solomon promised to cede six castles to Henry and acknowledge his\u00a0suzerainty<\/a>\u00a0in return for Henry\u2019s support to recover his country.[148]<\/a><\/sup>[149]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Henry invaded Hungary and marched as far as\u00a0V\u00e1c<\/a>, but he could not force G\u00e9za to surrender.[150]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Pope Gregory sharply criticised Solomon for his willingness to accept Henry\u2019s suzerainty, because the Pope regarded Hungary as a fief of the Holy See.[151]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

On 7\u00a0December 1074, Pope Gregory asked Henry to compel the German prelates who had not obeyed his summons to attend a synod in Rome.[152]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The Pope suspended five German bishops for disobedience at the synod of Lent in Rome in February 1075. He blamed Henry\u2019s five advisors, likely those who had been excommunicated by his predecessor, for the conflict over the archbishopric of Milan. Henry and the German bishops wanted to avoid a conflict. Archbishops Siegfied of Mainz and Liemar of Bremen travelled to Rome to begin negotiations with the Pope. They did not protest when the Pope deposed Bishop Herman of Bamberg. The Pope appreciated their obedience and appointed Siegfried to hold a reforming synod in Germany.[153]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

At the age of six, Henry became sole monarch of the empire.[34][36]\u00a0Pope Victor\u00a0II convinced the German aristocrats to swear fealty to their young king and enthroned him in Aachen.[36]\u00a0Although Empress Agnes had been planning to enter a\u00a0nunnery, she was appointed her son\u2019s\u00a0guardian.[34]\u00a0She was responsible for her son\u2019s education along with a royal\u00a0ministerialis\u00a0(unfree\u00a0liegeman), Cuno.[37]\u00a0She secured the […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":495,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"om_disable_all_campaigns":false,"_monsterinsights_skip_tracking":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_active":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_note":"","_monsterinsights_sitenote_category":0,"footnotes":""},"categories":[1],"tags":[],"class_list":{"0":"post-494","1":"post","2":"type-post","3":"status-publish","4":"format-standard","5":"has-post-thumbnail","7":"category-review"},"yoast_head":"\nAt the age of six, Henry became sole monarch of the empire - 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